XIII. Celibacy and the Monastic Life

It is probable that the example set by their Christian sisters in the religious life first caused the women saints of Islām to realise the value of celibacy and the cloistered life for those who desired to follow the mystic Way and aspired to the Sufi‘s goal of union with the Divine. There was considerable opposition on the part of orthodox Islām to the ideal of asceticism and most of all to the doctrine of celibacy. In the Qur’an “monasticism” is condemned as being an innovation introduced by the Christians themselves, and not a Divine ordinance, and Abū Dāwūd, an uncompromising opponent of the Sufi teachings, says that the Prophet declared, “There is no celibacy in Islām”. In the well-known tradition related of ‘Akkāf al-Hilālī, who was asked by the Prophet if he was married and said he was not, the Prophet said to him, “Then you are one of the followers of Satan, or one of the Christian monks. If so, go to them, but if you are one of us, then do as we do, for our Sunna includes marriage. The most wicked among you are your celibates and the most ignoble among your dead are your celibates. Woe be to you, ‘Akkāf, (I adjure you) marry”. In the same sense the Prophet is reported to have said, “The man who has no wife is very unfortunate”, and, “The man who does not marry is none of mine”. Another tradition of the Prophet relating to this^1,2,3 subject reports that he said, “One rak’a from a married man is better than seventy from the celibate”. Again, the Prophet is related to have said, “The curse of God be upon those men who live in celibacy and who say, ‘We will not marry ’. The curse of God be upon those women who remain unwed and say, ‘We will not marry ’”. Al-Dhahabi records a tradition dealing prophetically with this subject, according to which Muhammad is reputed to have said, “When three hundred and eighty years shall have passed over my community, then celibacy and the monastic life upon the tops of the mountains shall be lawful for them”. The Christian monks appear to have had a distinct preference for lofty situations for their monasteries, presumably because this made for solitude, and to-day in Syria almost every hill-top is occupied by a Dayr or convent. This preference evidently goes back to the time of the Prophet. A later Muslim writer, also opposed to asceticism, accuses women of choosing the celibate life for their own convenience and comfort, and being tempted thereto by Satan, who says to the religious-minded woman, “You are a woman devout and occupied with God, and if you do not marry you will be relieved from the matter of children and (be free) to go abroad, and your property will increase steadily, and your worship will be your sustenance”, and the writer adds that such a woman is helped by other devout worshippers of God like herself, whom Satan has corrupted. On the other hand, Abū Tālib mentions that celibacy^4,5,6,7,8 was favoured after the second century A.n., apparently in order to avoid the responsibilities of marriage, for he says: Celibacy was approved and remaining unmarried was preferred in this nation at the end of this period, and it is reported that after A.H. 200, the one who had the least burden (the lightbacked) was he who had no wife or child. In another tradition it is said that there came upon the people a period when a man was ruined by the hands of his wife and parents and children, who upbraided him with his poverty and put upon him what he was not able to bear and (so) he had recourse to the places which led him into debt and he was ruined. The Sufis realised the advantage of celibacy for the mystic, and the same writer, giving his own views on celibacy and marriage, says: The best thing for the novice [ i.e. the one who aspires to sainthood ] in such times as these of ours, is to renounce marriage, in order to be safe against seduction, if he has been trained in virtue and if his soul does not urge him on to disobedience, and the desire for women does not take possession of his heart, so as to distract his mind, or prevent him from continuous service, through the wandering of his thoughts and the distraction of his mind through the matter of women. Again, he expresses the view that if the disciple is inclined towards celibacy and can be satisfied with solitude, the peace which it brings is much to be desired, but if the disciple craves for marriage and is not safe from the claims of desire, then let him marry. The Sufi, Abū Sulayman al-Darānī, expressed the same view when, in answer to an inquiry about the desirability of marriage, he said, “To be able to do without them [ i.e. women ] is better than to bear with them, but to bear with them is better than to endure the fire of Hell”.^9,10,11,12

This same Sufi teacher used to say that marriage was good for those who had patience to surmount its difficulties, but “the solitary one will find in the sweetness of work and in freedom of mind, what the married man does not find”. He said further, “I have not seen one of our friends who married and remained in his former rank (as a Sufi)”, and again, “There are three things which indicate a longing for the world in the man who seeks them: he who seeks a livelihood, he who marries, and he who writes traditions”. Al-Hujwīrī holds that the Dervish (i.e. the Sufi) must consider in his mind the respective evils of celibacy and marriage, in order to choose the lesser evil for himself. The evils of celibacy consist in neglecting the ordinance of the Prophet and in the danger of falling into unlawful ways, while marriage involves the evils of the distraction of the mind with other than God, and the concern of the body with sensual pleasure. Marriage therefore is best for the sociable, and celibacy for the solitary. He states his own view that celibacy is the better way, and concludes, “Sufism was founded on celibacy; the introduction of marriage brought about a change”(not for the better), and he says that desire can be removed by self-restraint, but still better by the force of a rival love (the love of God) which extends its empire over the whole body and its senses. The celibate must guard his eyes and his thoughts from temptation and keep his heart from the distractions of this material world-in short, he must guard himself from the temptations of the world, the flesh and the devil, and so “he will be approved in Sufism”. Bishr al-Hafi (the Barefooted, who died A.D. 841-2), used to say, “He who has no need of women, relies^13,14,15 upon God Almighty “, and when he was asked why he did not marry, in accordance with the Sunna, he replied,” I am occupied with duties other than those of the Law, that is, with the duty of keeping my soul zealous and free from the evil in creation “. Mālik b. Dīnār is related to have said,” No man attains to the degree of assured certainty (in the heavenly gnosis) unless he leaves his wife as if she were a widow “. Suhrawardi, discussing this subject, says that the Sufi, if he marries, marries for God’s sake, and equally, if he remains solitary, it is for the sake of God. In either case, his choice is deliberate and the sincere man knows which to choose, for the natural desires (ungovernable in others) in the Sufi are bridled with the bridle of knowledge. Whether or not celibacy seems good to him, at least he will not let nature hurry him into marriage, though he will not prefer celibacy to marriage unless it seems good to him. A Dervish was asked why he did not marry, and he replied,” A wife is suitable for a man, and I have not yet attained to true manhood, and how should I marry? “Another Dervish, when advised to marry, said,” I have greater need of divorcing my Self than of marrying a wife “. A similar answer was given by Mālik b. Dinār, when he was asked,” Are you not going to marry? “and he said,” If I could divorce my carnal Self, I would have divorced her “, i.e.” I have more need to get rid of the ties I have, than to make fresh ones, to hinder me in my Quest “. Closely connected with the idea of celibacy is that of retirement and solitude, to which the Sufis attached^{16,17,18,19,20,21} great value, and much was written on separation (tajrid), retreat (khalwa) and isolation (uzla). Al-Kalābādhī, a very early writer on Sufism, writing on the subject, says that the real meaning of “separation” is to be separated outwardly from property and inwardly from all that is unreal. Again, he says that isolation (tafrid), that is, setting oneself apart for God, means to get away from the phenomenal world and be alone in the mystic states, and that one’s actions should all be in relation to God; there should be no vision of the self, no pleasure in the creatures and no seeking after rewards. Al-Qushayri also speaks of the value of retirement and solitude for the seeker after God. To go into retreat is fitting for God’s elect and retirement is essential for those who seek Union. It is also essential for the novice at the beginning of the Way. He quotes al-Junayd as saying, “The man who seeks peace from his religion must give rest to his body and heart and withdraw from the society of men, and the wise man is he who seeks solitude for himself”. The celibate ideal and the life of retirement were then realised as invaluable for all who sought to follow the mystic Way, and what was an advantage to the man Sufi, because it freed him from the distractions of this world, was of still greater advantage, indeed almost a necessity, for the woman Sufi, if she was to pursue her quest without hindrance. So, unexpected as it might seem, we find Muslim women recluses living the life of retirement in much the same way as the Christian nuns.^22,23,24

This desire to withdraw from the world naturally led to the establishment of religious houses. These are heard of very early in the history of Islām, and the history of the earliest of such foundations proves incidentally the prevalence of celibacy among certain of the followers of the Prophet. Al-Tabari refers to “the house of Sa’d b. Khaythama, who was a celibate, without family, and there were celibates among the followers of the Apostle from among those who fled to him and therefore this house of Sa’d b. Khaythama was called the house of the celibates”. Ibn Battuta also says that “On the bank of the moat dug by the Apostle of God, when he met with the assembly of the confederates (not far from Medīna) is a ruined dwelling, known as the abode of the celibates, and it is said that ‘Umar built it for the celibates of Islām”. As the Sufi doctrine spread and its adherents increased, it became necessary to provide monasteries for those who wished to live apart. Jāmī says that the first monastery (khānagāh) for Sufis was the one built at Ramla in Syria, and the cause of its being built was that one day a Christian prince had gone out hunting and on the road he saw two persons of this sect (the Sufis) who had met together and were embracing one another. They then sat down in that same spot, and, spreading out what food they had, they ate together. His business brought the Christian Amir there, and their affection to one another pleased him, and he called one of them and asked him who the other was. He replied, “I do not know”. The Amir said, “What (relation) is he to you?” The man answered, “None at all”. The Amir asked, “From what place has he come?” He said, “I do not know”. The prince said, “Then whence came this affection which you showed to one another?” The Dervish replied, “He belongs to my Way”. The prince asked, “Have you any place where^25,26 you meet together? “and when the man said they had not, the Amir said,” I will build you a place where you may meet together “, and so he built that monastery in Ramla. Maqrīzī, the historian, speaks of the word khānaqah as being Persian and adopted into Islām at the end of the fourth century. He says that the rise of Sufism made it necessary to have religious establishments for the devotees and that the first to set aside a house for devotion was Zayd b. Şawhān b. Şabra, and his aim was to provide for the men of Başra who had given themselves up to devotion and who had no worldly occupation and no means, and therefore he built them a house and established them in it and gave them what their calling required in the way of food and drink and clothing, and so on. One day he went to visit them and found they had been invited to a feast by ‘Abd Allah b. ‘Amr, governor of Başra, who wished to do them honour. But Zayd realised that his devotees could not serve God and Mammon, nor be tempted by the things of this world and give their full attention to the affairs of the next, and he sent them back to their monastery. The same writer speaks of the derivation of the Arabic name for a monastery, ribat, which he says is” a place wherein dwell the people of the Way “. He says that the name was originally taken from the tying up of horses, each separately, but later became the name of the religious house of the Sufis, who had one abode common to all and in this respect were like the homeless. The inhabitants of the ribāt had one purpose and aim and lived in the condition which befitted their calling. Though the greater number of these monasteries^27,28,29 were for men, yet we find also convents for women from an early period. Several convents for women existed in Mecca and are mentioned by the writers of the Chronicles of Mecca. We are told of two near a place called al-Durayba, one of them known by the inhabitants as the convent of Ibn al-Sawda, and “over the door”, says the historian, “is a stone with an inscription stating that Umm Khalil Khadīja and Umm ’Īsā Mariam, the two daughters of the Qa’id Abū Tamr al-Mubarak, that is ‘Abd Allah al-Qāsimī, founded it for women Sufis desiring to lead a celibate life, who belonged to the Shafi ‘rite, in the year A.H. 590, and it is also called the convent of the Hurrish”. Another Meccan convent was known as the convent of Bint al-Tāj, and over the door was a stone stating that it was founded for pious Sufi women of that neighbourhood about A.H. 619. Yet another convent in Mecca was called the convent of Al-Dūri for women, and was in existence in the second half of the seventh century A.H. Among the convents for women in Egypt the most famous was the one known as the Hostel of the Baghdādīs, which was at the entrance of the Asfar road, leading into the lane of Baybars at the Place of Sacrifice (in Cairo). This convent was built by the noble lady Sitt Jalila Tadhharīya, daughter of the king Al-Zahir Baybars, in the year A.H. 684, for the holy Shaykha Zaynab, daughter of Abūʼal-l-Barakāt, known as the daughter of the Baghdādī, and the princess sent the Shaykha with her pious women down to it, and this place was well known up to the time of Maqrīzī the historian, from^{30,31,32,33,34,35} the reputation of the holy women who were its inhabitants. Maqrīzī writes of it thus: They have always a Shaykha to advise the women and remind them (of their religious duties) and instruct them in the science of religion. The last (Superior) whom we know of (by name) there, was the noble Shaykha, preeminent among the women of her time, Umm Zaynab Fatima, daughter of ‘Abbās, a Baghdādī, who died in the year A.H. 714, when she had exceeded the age of eighty. She was acquainted with jurisprudence, of great learning, an ascetic, content with little, God-fearing, exhorting others, zealous in what was profitable, and in religious exercises tending to salvation and holy fear. The place was ruled with kindness, and many women of Damascus and Cairo profited by her teaching, and she possessed outstanding ability, and power to influence souls. After her time it came about that each woman who assumed the headship of this convent was called “The Baghdadi”, and we hear of another noble Shaykha, the Baghdādī, who remained there for many years, living the holiest of lives, until she died in the year A.H. 796. We know that this house was a place of reception for women who were divorced or deserted, who could use it as a retreat until they re-married or returned to their husbands; since there was strict discipline maintained in it and the greatest care and assiduity in religious observances, so that… whoever broke a rule was punished. Then when hard times came, through the events which occurred after the year A.H. 806, the affairs of the convent suffered, and the proximity to it of a prison for women prevented it from being used, but its good reputation has lasted. A Qādī of the Hanifites had the supervision over it. Maqrīzī mentions also the convent of Sitt Kalila Dawla, daughter of ‘Abd Allah al-Tataniya and wife of ‘Amr Sayf al-Din al-Barli, which she founded in A.H. 694. In addition to those in Egypt, there were also Muslim nuns to be found in other parts of North Africa.^36,37,38

Women appear also to have been prominent as founders of monasteries for men. One of these in Mecca was called the monastery of The Lady (alKhātūn) and was founded in A.H. 577 for Sufi men, both Arab and Persian, by Fatima, daughter of the Amir Abū Layla M. b. Anūshirwān. Another foundress of a monastery for Sufis was the Lady Taghāyī al-Khanda al-Kubra; this was known as the convent of Umm Anūk and was outside the Barqujya gate of Cairo, in the desert. She was Turkish, the wife of the sultan Malik al-Nasir M. b. Qalawūn and the mother of the Amir Anūk. She was much given to good works and charity and her monastery was well endowed. On her death in A.H. 749 she was buried within the precincts of the convent, which was still in existence in Maqrīzī‘s time. So we see that in spite of opposition the women saints of Islām, by the sanctity of their lives, by their religious zeal and by their learning, were able to reach a high rank in the religious life, and thereby also to improve their social status, while the adoption of the celibate life gave them an independence and freedom in the exercise of the religious life which was quite alien to the ideal of orthodox Islām.^39,40,41